Norton Anthology Poetry Terms Flashcard

Norton Anthology Poetry Terms

Defining the Middle Ages

Defining the Middle Ages One of the most frequently asked questions about medieval history is, When did the Middle Ages start and end? The answer to this simple question is more complicated than you might think. There is currently no true consensus among historians, authors, and educators for the precise dates- or even the general dates- that mark the beginning and end of the medieval era. The most common time frame is approximately 500-1500 C.E., but you will often see different dates of significance marking the eras parameters. The reasons for this imprecision become a little more clear when one considers that the Middle Ages as a period of study has evolved over centuries of scholarship. Once a Dark Age, then a romantic era and an Age of Faith, medieval times were approached by historians in the 20th century as a complex, multifaceted era, and many scholars found new and intriguing topics to pursue. Every view of the Middle Ages had its own defining characteristics, which in turn had its own turning points and associated dates. This state of affairs offers the scholar or enthusiast the opportunity to define the Middle Ages in the manner that best suits his own personal approach to the era. Unfortunately, it also leaves the newcomer to medieval studies with a certain amount of confusion. Stuck in the Middle The phrase Middle Ages has its origins in the fifteenth century. Scholars of the time- primarily in Italy- were caught up in an exciting movement of art and philosophy, and they saw themselves embarking on a new age that revived the long-lost culture of classical Greece and Rome. The time that intervened between the ancient world and their own was a middle age and, sadly, one they disparaged and from which they disassociated themselves. Eventually the term and its associated adjective, medieval, caught on. Yet, if the period of time the term covered was ever explicitly defined, the chosen dates were never unassailable. It may seem reasonable to end the era at the point where scholars began to see themselves in a different light; however, this would assume they were justified in their view. From our vantage point of considerable hindsight, we can see that this was not necessarily the case. The movement that outwardly characterized this period was in reality limited to the artistic elite (as well as to, for the most part, Italy). The political and  material culture  of the world around them had not radically changed from that of the centuries preceding their own. And despite the attitude of its participants, the  Italian Renaissance  did not spontaneously burst forth from  nowhere but was instead a product of the preceding 1,000 years of intellectual and artistic history. From a broad historical perspective, the Renaissance cannot be clearly separated from the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, thanks to the work of historians such as  Jacob Burkhardt  and Voltaire, the Renaissance was considered a distinct time period for many years. Yet recent scholarship has blurred the distinction between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It has now become much more important to comprehend the Italian Renaissance as an artistic and literary movement, and to see the succeeding movements it influenced in northern Europe and Britain for what they were, instead of lumping them all together in an imprecise and misleading age. Although the origin of the term middle ages may no longer hold the weight it once did, the idea of the medieval era as existing in the middle still has validity. It is now quite common to view the Middle Ages as that period of time between the ancient world and the early modern age. Unfortunately, the dates at which that first era ends and the later era begins are by no means clear. It may be more productive to define the medieval era in terms of its most significant and unique characteristics, and then identify the turning points and their associated dates. This leaves us with a variety of options for defining the Middle Ages. Empires Once, when political history defined the boundaries of the past, the date span of 476 to 1453 was generally considered the time frame of the medieval era. The reason: each date marked the fall of an empire. In 476 C.E., the  Western Roman Empire officially came to an end  when the Germanic warrior  Odoacer  deposed and exiled the last emperor,  Romulus Augustus. Instead of taking the title of  emperor  or acknowledging anyone else as such, Odoacer chose the title King of Italy, and the  western empire  was no more. This event is no longer considered the definitive end of the Roman empire. In fact, whether Rome fell, dissolved, or evolved is still a matter for debate. Although at its height the empire spanned territory from Britain to Egypt, even at its most expansive the Roman  bureaucracy  neither encompassed nor controlled most of what was to become Europe. These lands, some of which were virgin territory, would be occupied by peoples that the Romans considered barbarians, and their genetic and cultural descendants would have just as much impact on the formation of western civilization as the survivors of Rome. The study of the Roman Empire  is  important in understanding medieval Europe, but even if the date of its fall could be irrefutably determined, its status as a defining factor no longer holds the influence it once had. In 1453 C.E., the  Eastern Roman Empire  came to an end when its  captial  city of Constantinople fell to invading Turks. Unlike the western terminus, this date is not contested, even though the Byzantine Empire had shrunk through the centuries and, at the time of the fall of Constantinople, had consisted of little more than the great city itself for more than two hundred years. However, as significant as Byzantium is to medieval studies, to view it as a  defining  factor is misleading. At its  height, the eastern empire encompassed even less of present-day Europe than had the western empire. Furthermore, while Byzantine civilization influenced the course of western culture and politics, the empire remained quite deliberately separate from the tumultuous, unstable, dynamic societies that grew, foundered, merged and ​​warred  in the west. The choice of Empires as a defining characteristic of medieval studies has one other significant flaw: throughout the course of the Middle Ages, no  true  empire encompassed a significant portion of Europe for any substantial length of time.  Charlemagne  succeeded in uniting large portions of modern-day France and Germany, but the nation he built broke into factions only two generations after his death.  The Holy Roman Empire  has been called neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire, and its emperors certainly did not have the kind of control over its lands that Charlemagne achieved. Yet the fall of empires lingers in our perception of the Middle Ages. One cannot help but notice how close the dates 476 and 1453 are to 500 and 1500. Christendom Throughout the medieval  era  only one institution came close to uniting all of Europe, though it was not so much a political empire as a spiritual one. That union was attempted by the Catholic Church, and the geopolitical entity it influenced was known as Christendom. While the exact extent of the Churchs political power and influence on the material culture of medieval Europe has been and continues to be debated, there is no denying that it had a significant impact on international events and personal lifestyles throughout the era. It is for this reason that the Catholic Church has validity as a defining factor of the Middle Ages. The rise, establishment, and ultimate fracturing of Catholicism as the single most influential religion in  Western  Europe offers several significant dates to use as  start- and end-points for the era. In 306 C.E.,  Constantine  was proclaimed Caesar and became co-ruler of the Roman Empire. In 312 he converted to Christianity, the once-illegal religion now became favored over all others. (After his death, it would become the official religion of the empire.) Virtually overnight, an underground cult became the religion of the Establishment, forcing the once-radical Christian philosophers to rethink their attitudes toward the Empire. In 325, Constantine called the  Council of Nicaea, the first  ecumenical council  of the Catholic Church. This convocation of bishops from all over the known world was an important step in building the organized institution that would have so much influence over the next 1,200 years. These events make the year 325, or at the very least the early fourth century, a viable starting point for the Christian Middle Ages. However, another event holds equal or greater weight in the minds of some scholars: the accession to the papal throne of  Gregory the Great  in 590. Gregory was instrumental in establishing the medieval papacy as a strong socio-political force, and many believe that without his efforts the Catholic Church would never have achieved the power and influence it wielded throughout medieval times. In 1517 C.E.  Martin Luther  posted 95 theses criticizing the Catholic Church. In 1521 he was excommunicated, and he appeared before the  Diet of Worms  to defend his actions. The attempts to reform ecclesiastical practices from within the institution were futile; ultimately, the  Protestant Reformation  split the Western Church irrevocably. The Reformation was not a peaceful one, and religious wars ensued throughout much of Europe. These culminated in the  Thirty Years War  that ended with the  Peace of Westphalia  in 1648. When equating medieval with the rise and fall of Christendom, the latter date is sometimes viewed as the end of the Middle Ages by those who prefer an all-inclusive view of the era. However, the sixteenth-century events that heralded the beginning of the end of Catholicisms pervasive presence in Europe are more  frequently  regarded as the eras terminus. Europe The field of medieval studies is by its very nature eurocentric. This does not mean that medievalists deny or ignore the significance of events that took place outside of what is today Europe during the medieval era. But the entire concept of a medieval era is a European one. The term Middle Ages was first used by European scholars during the  Italian Renaissance  to describe their own history, and as the study of the era has evolved, that focus has remained fundamentally the same. As more research has been conducted in previously unexplored areas, a wider recognition of the importance of the lands outside Europe in shaping the modern world has evolved. While other specialists study the histories of non-European lands from varying perspectives, medievalists generally approach them with regard to how they affected  European  history. It is an aspect of medieval studies that has always characterized the field. Because the medieval era is so inextricably linked to the geographical entity we now call Europe, it is entirely valid to associate a definition of the Middle Ages with a significant stage in the development of that entity. But this presents us with a variety of challenges. Europe is not a separate  geological  continent; it is part of a larger land mass properly called Eurasia. Throughout history, its boundaries shifted all too often, and they are still shifting today. It was not commonly recognized as a distinct geographical entity  during  the Middle Ages; the lands we now call Europe were more frequently considered Christendom. Throughout the Middle Ages, there was no single political force that controlled all of the  continent. With these limitations, it becomes increasingly difficult to define the parameters of a broad historical age associated with what we now call Europe. But perhaps this very lack of characteristic features can help us with our definition. When the Roman Empire was at its height, it consisted primarily of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. By the time  Columbus  made his historic voyage to the New World, the Old World stretched from Italy to Scandinavia, and from Britain to the Balkans and beyond. No longer was Europe the wild, untamed frontier, populated by barbarian, frequently migratory cultures. It was now civilized (though still often in turmoil), with generally stable governments, established centers of commerce and learning, and the dominant presence of Christianity. Thus, the medieval era might be considered the period of time during which Europe  became  a geopolitical entity. The fall of the  Roman Empire (c. 476) can still be considered a turning point in the development of Europes identity. However, the time when the migrations of Germanic tribes into Roman territory began to effect significant changes in the empires cohesiveness (the 2nd century C.E.) could be considered the genesis of Europe. A common terminus is the late 15th  century when westward   exploration  into the new world initiated a new awareness in Europeans of their old world. The 15th century also saw significant turning points for regions within Europe: In 1453, the end of the  Hundred Years War  signalled the unification of France; in 1485, Britain saw the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of an extensive peace; in 1492, the Moors were driven from Spain, the Jews were expelled, and Catholic unity prevailed. Changes were taking place everywhere, and as individual nations established modern identities, so too did Europe appear to take on a cohesive identity of its own. Learn more about the early, high and late middle ages.

Two characters analysis in Packer's Geese Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Two characters analysis in Packer's Geese - Essay Example She finds it difficult to trust anyone unconditionally and she is suspicious about everything. The scene for Dina shifts to Tokyo in this story. She lives with a group of young people who are jobless in Tokyo. They face slow starvation, and reach a situation where they share in one grapefruit and banana between five people. â€Å"The all-knowing arrogance of youth† is subdued by hunger. How small issues can take the grim turn—Dina alienates her roommates by eating the last slice of grapefruit. The thematic ploy in this story is â€Å"Asian prejudice against blacks.† The compulsions of living life in odd circumstances, when empty stomach leaves very harsh choices for survival—and Dina prostitutes herself to a Japanese sarariman, the men who liked to proposition black girls, because â€Å"Verry chah-ming daaark-ku skin. â€Å"What the story tells us through Dina is, the important aspect of life is the process through which one lives it. Success and failure s are but incidental factors, the reality of life is one’s approach to the struggles. In this story one finds the older, experienced Dina, from what she was in the story ‘Drinking Coffee Elsewhere.† She is in Tokyo with young company with persons like Ari, Petra, Zoltan etc. Being unable to find work through the normal channels, she invents a trick to eat and pay the rent. â€Å"She left with a wad of yen. While riding the tokkyuu she watched life pass, alert employees returning to work, uniformed children on a field trip. It all passed by — buildings, signs, throngs of people everywhere." — Ayesha Court. ‘Geese’ continues the somber mood, but with an almost surreal edge to it and a host of memorable if not necessarily fully-realized characters. â€Å"The store manager, a nervous Japanese man in his forties, brought her to Zoltan, telling him, in smiling, broken English, to keep her at home"(p.203) is the second important character in the story,

Journal article critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Journal article critique - Essay Example Distribution of leadership would serve motivate the teaching staff making them to go beyond their mandate. The benefits of this distribution of leadership responsibilities would consequently trickle down to students. I found the idea that leadership is moral activity that should be creative and transformative in positively influencing the social and personal aspects of students’ lives insightful. This is important because it shows that effective leadership should not be based on opinion but duty (Rhodes & Brundrett, 2009). The idea of incorporating all stakeholders in influencing positive and improving schools and student behavior is a tested idea and it is effective. Leaving other stakeholders such as parents and students from leadership locks out the contribution of these stakeholders and this can slow the achievement of the goal of school improvement. The authors of this article explain that leadership that factors in student voice helps to not only improve a school academically and imparts responsible and active citizenship in students. I find this idea important because schools are supposed to have a holistic impact on students not just academically. I agree with these authors when they contend that leadership positions in schools are still highly engendered and this need to be changed. This idea is important because it would help tap women’s talent in improving schools (Rhodes & Brundrett, 2009). The idea that leadership development happens effectively on the job is important because it extends leadership development beyond leadership training programs. The idea to create a learning community as a strategy to enhance adaptability to change and improve students’ outcomes is noteworthy. This is because, many organizations are increasingly emphasizing the role of a learning environment in facilitating improvements

Bioaccummulution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bioaccummulution - Essay Example One of the foci in the issue of bioaccumulation is the lack of intensive research and accumulated knowledge specifically in terms of the bioaccumulation of hazardous chemicals and their long-term effects in humans. One of the main reasons for the said lack of knowledge and efforts for research is the fact that the understanding of the concept is â€Å"superficial† which means humans are detaching themselves to what is happening in the aquatic ecosystem though there is a great probability that the effects of accumulated toxic materials would be more potent for terrestrial organisms. The superficial view on bioaccumulation lessens the impact and the urgency for in depth study. In addition, as explored by the study conducted by Kim and Kim, the concept is at a certain degree lost in translation specifically in non-English speaking nations. This is also related to the issue that the lack of in depth exploration on the subject causes educational institutions to disseminate misconce ptions that can cause escalation of more misconceptions to students as well as the other members of the general population (Kim and Kim, 2013). Gobas, F.A.P.C., Mackintosh, C.E., Webster, M.I., Parkerton, T.F. and Robillard, K. (2003). Bioaccumulation of Phthalate Esters in aquatic food-webs. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, 3 (Q): 201-225. Doi:

Chitin: Applications, Composition and Properties

Chitin: Applications, Composition and Properties 1. Introduction Chitin, poly (b-(1-4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine), is a natural polysaccharide of major importance. It was first discovered by Braconnot (1811), a professor of natural history. He isolated chitin from mushrooms by treating it with warm alkali. Later Odier (1823)ÂÂ  found chitin while studying beetle cuticles and named chitin after Greek word chiton (tunic, envelope). The silk worm was also discovered as a source of chitin when Lassaigne (1843) isolated it from the Bombyx mori. The monomeric unit of chitin (N-acetyl glucosamine) became known because of the work of Ledderhose in 1878. In the first half of the twentieth century, research on chitin was mostly directed toward the study of its occurrence in living organisms. Finally in 1981 Austin and his coworkers came up with a completed data on the sources of chitin which is widely distributed in marine invertebrates (Figure 1), insects, fungi, and yeast (1981). However, chitin is not present in higher plants and higher animals. Genera lly, the shell of selected crustacean was reported by Knorr (1984) to consist of 30-40% protein, 30-50% calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate, and 20-30% chitin. Chitin is widely available from a variety of source among which, the principal source is shellfish waste such as shrimps, crabs, and crawfish (Allan et al., 1979). It also exists naturally in a few species of fungi. Chitin occurs in nature as ordered crystalline microfibrils forming structural components in the exoskeleton of arthropods or in the cell walls of fungi and yeast. It is also produced by a number of other living organisms in the lower plant and animal kingdoms, serving in many functions where reinforcement and strength are required. (Rinaudo, 2006). The structure of chitin has been described (Fig. 1). In terms of its structure, chitin is associated with proteins and, therefore, high in protein contents. Chitin fibrils are embedded in a matrix of calcium carbonate and protein. The matrix is proteinaceous, where the protein is hardened by a tanning process (Muzzarrelli, 1977). Studies of Ashford et al., (1977) demonstrated that chitin represents 14-27% and 13-15% of the dry weight of shrimp and crab processing wastes, respectively. 2.2. Characteristics and Structure of Chitin Chitin is made up of highly extended hydrogen bonded chain and is semi-crystalline in structure of chitin [Rinaudo (2006) Kurita (2001)]. Chitin is a structural biopolymer, which has a role analogous to that of collagen in the higher animals and cellulose in terrestrial plants [Muzzarelli, (1977) Mayer, (1996)]. Plants produce cellulose in their cell walls and insects and crustaceans produce chitin in their shells (Muzzarelli, 1986). Cellulose and chitin are, thus, two important and structurally related polysaccharides that provide structural integrity and protection to plants and animals, respectively [Muzzarelli (1986) and Roberts (1992)]. Chitin occurs in nature as ordered crystalline microfibrils forming structural components in the exoskeleton of arthropods or in the cell walls of fungi and yeast (Raabe 2007). In crustaceans, Chitin polymers tend to form rod like fibrils or crystallites that are balanced by hydrogen bonds formed between the amine and carbonyl groups. X-ray diffraction analysis suggests that chitin is a polymorphic substance that occurs in three different crystalline modifications, termed ÃŽÂ ±, ß and ÃŽÂ ³ chitin. They mainly differ in the degree of hydration, in the size of the unit cell and in the number of chitin chains per unit cell [Rudall and Kenchington, (1973) Kramer and Koga, (1986)]. In the ÃŽÂ ± form, all chains exhibit an anti-parallel orientation; in the ß form the chains are arranged in a parallel manner; in the ÃŽÂ ³ form sets of two parallel strands alternate with single anti-parallel strands. Chitin is found to occur as fibrous material embedded in a six stranded protein helix [http://meyersgroup.ucsd.edu, 2006]. The polymorphic forms of chitin differ in the packing and polarities of adjacent chains in successive sheets; in the termed ÃŽÂ ± form, all chains are aligned in a parallel manner, which is not the case in ß form and ÃŽÂ ³ chitin. The molecular order of chitin depends on the ph ysiological role and tissue characteristics. In both structures, the chitin chains are organized in sheets where they are tightly held by a number of intra-sheet hydrogen bonds with the ß- and ÃŽÂ ³ chains packed in antiparallel arrangements Rinaudo. (2008). 2.3. Biodegradation of tiger prawn shell by Lactic acid fermentation for extraction of Chitin Every year tones of sea food waste is dumped onto the shores of the sea and lagoons or in the inner mangrove area surrounding the sea for these are the regions where maximum sea food cultivation is done. These areas are the hub of number of small and large scale seafood industries which deal with culturing and processing of seafood. This huge amount of sea food waste is polluting the surrounding land and water and is depleting the fresh water supply. Dumping of Seafood waste leads to accumulation of sediments causing organic pollution which causes physical disturbance of hydrological regimes resulting in a number of ecological problems which include conversion and degradation of costal ecosystem. ( Mathew and Nair, 2006) The demineralization of crustacean shells have been chemically performed using concentrated acids such as HCl (Whistler et al., 1962), H2SO4 (Peniston and Johnson, 1978), CH3COOH (Bautisa et al., 2000) and HCOOH (Horowitz et al., 1957) by various researchers. However, the chemical methods are expensive and detrimental to the environment leading to effluent problems [Shirai (2001) and Fagberno (1996)]. The Traditional method of chitin preparation from crustacean waste involving the use of alkalis and acids for demineralization, make the method ecologically harsh and a cause of pollution (Rao et al., 2000) It also reduces the chitin quality to certain extent (Simpson et al. 1994; Healy et al., 1994) mostly such processes depolymerising chitin to a higher extent leading to the formation of a deacetylated form of chitin called chitosan. Biotechnological process of lactic acid fermentation of crustacean shell waste is a powerful tool to overcome the environmental problems. Fermentation of crustacean shells using lactic acid bacteria is also an attractive method which lowers the pH of the medium and facilitates the demineralization of minerals and the hydrolysis of proteins while leaving the associated chitin intact. Thus this process also helps in a safe recovery of chitin as the fermented residue. Also, fermentation of crustacean bio waste to recover chitin considerably replaces the expensive and non environmentally friendly chemical process [ Rao et al., (2000), Shirai et al., (2001) and Hall et al., (1992) ]. Lactic acid bacterial fermentation of shrimp waste for chitin recovery was studied with lactose or cassava extract as additional sources of carbohydrate for natural energy (Hall and Silva 1992). Raw heads of Africa river prawn were fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum using cane molasses (Fagbenro 1996). Treatment of minced waste of scampi in the presence of glucose by a culture of Lactobacillus paracasei strain A3 was investigated (Zakaria et al. 1998). The primary object of all these studies was demineralization of the raw materials along with which deproteinisation took place (Shirai et al. 2001). The effectiveness of demineralization was exaggerated by the increasing inoculum amounts supplied. Also, the proportion of glucose was significant for the lactic acid fermentation by the bacterial strain to demineralize the shell wastes (Shirai et al. 2001 and Rao et al. 2002). The demineralized and deproteinized chitin has a light pink color due to the presence of astaxanthin pigment. When bleached product is desired, this pigment can be eliminated by the decolorization using bleaching agents. The resulting chitin is insoluble in most organic solvents; however, its deacetylated derivative chitosan is soluble in some acids. The subsequent conversion of chitin to chitosan is generally achieved by treatment with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (40-50%) at 100Â °C or higher for 30 minutes to remove some or all of the acetyl groups from the polymer (No and Meyers, 1995). Lactic acid bacterial fermentation for demineralization has also been occasionally reported for shrimp waste (Shirai et al. 2001) crayfish exoskeleton (Bautista et al. 2001) and scampi waste (Zakaria et al. 1998). However, demineralization by lactic acid fermentation of tiger prawn shell waste along with the characterization of the resulting chitin has been less studied in relation to glucose concentration and inoculum amount. In the present work, we evaluated the demineralization of tiger prawn shell waste by lactic acid bacterial fermentation with various concentrations of inoculum and glucose and characterize the fermented residue the chitin by powerful techniques such as X-Ray diffraction, FTIR, SEM and TGA. From the literature it is evident that the limitations of the chemical method for the degradation of sea food can be largely overcome by the biological method of demineralization and hence research interest has been shown in recent years in this direction. Lactic acid fermentation of crustaceans shell waste has been reported to be studied as a potential biological method of degradation (P Mathew and KGR. Nair, 2006) 2.4. Factors Affecting Production of Chitin by Lactic Acid Fermentation 2.4.1. Effect of Initial Glucose Concentration and Inoculation Level of Lactic Acid Bacteria on Tiger Prawn Shell Waste Fermentation Amount of starter culture and initial glucose concentration are critical factors in the fermentation of tiger prawn shell waste fermentation. A correct proportion of initial glucose and starter culture concentrations increase the amount of lactic acid produced and thus increased the % demineralization. Glucose is a readily fermentable sugar and hence chosen as the source of carbon for the microbes in most of the studies. Glucose concentration is a highly important parameter of fermentation and hence chitin production. According to Jung et al. (2004) Microbial growth and hence acidification of the broth during fermentation is highly dependent on glucose concentration. Lactobacillus sp. has the potential to produce lactic acid and other organic acids. Using organic acids such as lactic and/or acetic acids for the demineralization process is a promising idea since organic acids in order to produce low cost biomass, purified chitin and reduce the harmful to the environment (Jung et al., 2005,Rao et al., 2000, Sunita et al.,2009). According to Hong et al. (1999) the production of organic acids by the lactic acid bacterium L. plantarum decreased the pH and made the environment selective against spoilage microorganisms. Zakaria et al. (1998) had also reported that the decaying of the raw crustacean waste materials can be controlled through the selection of microorganisms having a high capacity to produce organic acids. Further Shirai et al. (2001) reported that the selection of the correct micro organism is an important factor for the acidification of crab shell waste and for suppressing the growth of spoilage organisms. Cira et al., (2002) reported that lactic acid bacteria fermentation with the 10% inoculums was helpful in attaining a pH of around pH 5 after day 3. On the other hand it was reported by Shirai et al. (2001) that lactic acid fermentation of shrimp wastes which contained 10% glucose and a 5% inoculum of Latobacillus sp. B2 lowered from to pH 4.5. Therefore medium pH likely depends on the content of the energy source such as glucose and sucrose and the other factor least considered but of great importance is the solid to liquid ratio. Lower the solid to liquid ratio higher is the rate of demineralization. As the solid concentration increases the concentration of slurry increases resulting in reduced mass transfer and hence poor demineralization occurs. (Kyung. et al., 2008). The selection of the potential microbe along with the correct proportion of the additional starter is very important for the lactic acid bacterial fermentation to demineralize the raw shell wastes (Shirai et al. 200 1; Rao et al. 2002) along with the correct propotion of solid to liquid ratio (Kyung.et.al. 2008). 2.4.2. Temperature of Fermentation Application of microorganisms or enzymes to extract chitin from marine crustacean wastes is a current research trend for bio-conversion of wastes into useful biomass (Bhaskar et al., 2006). From his study he analyzed that a temperature of 35ÂÂ °C resulted in lowest pH conditions of pH 3.7 and highest % demineralization of about 92%. Kyung et al., (2008) reported that a temperature of 30ÂÂ °C gave the highest % demineralizatuion. 2.4.3. Particle Size Particle size in chitin productions has sparked controversial reports on its effect on chitin quality. Some agree that small particle size is better than large particle size. According to Bough et al. (1978), smaller particle size (1mm) results in higher demineralization % with a chitin product of both higher viscosity and molecular weight than that of larger particle size (above 2 to 6.4 mm). The larger particle sizes require longer swelling time resulting in a slower deacetylation rate. 2.5. Process Optimization by Taguchi Taguchi method of production optimization is a purely statistical approach to analyze scientific data based on statistical factorials. Taguchi experimental design offers remarkable advantages by examining a group of factors simultaneously and extracting as much quantitative information as can be extracted with a few experimental trials [Stone and Veevers, (1994) and Houng et al., 2006]. But yet only a few reports are available on the application of Taguchis method in the field of biotechnology (Cobb and Clarkson, 1994 and Han et al., 1998). 2.6. Characterization and Physiochemical study of Chitin 2.6.1. X-Ray Diffraction Analysis The crystalline structures of chitin are differently presented according to the raw materials. XRD is low cost and user friendly method to accurately characterize the kind of chitin extracted from a particular species. Chitin has three different crystalline polymorphic forms according to the derived material ÃŽÂ ± chitin, ÃŽÂ ² chitin, and ÃŽÂ ³ chitin. The structures of the ÃŽÂ ± and ÃŽÂ ² forms differ only in that the piles of chains are arranged alternately antiparallel in ÃŽÂ ± chitin, whereas they are all parallel in ÃŽÂ ² chitin. The structures of ÃŽÂ ± chitin, ÃŽÂ ² chitin, Sugiyama et al., (1999) and Syed et al., 1999; have been determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). According to the crystalline structure of chitin suggested by Rudall (1963) and (1967.) ÃŽÂ ± chitin has strong intersheet and intrasheet hydrogen bonding,and ÃŽÂ ² chitin chitin has weak hydrogen bonding by intrasheets. Therefore, in contrast to ÃŽÂ ± chitin, ÃŽÂ ² chitin i s characterized by a weak intermolecular force, Lee et al., 1996. Not much information is available regarding the crystalline study of ÃŽÂ ³ chitin by X ray diffraction technique. The XRD profiles of chitin samples easily help to distinguish the different forms of chitin based on the peaks and crystallinity. It has been found that ÃŽÂ ± chitin has three to four sharp crystalline reflections at 9.6, 19.6, 21.1, and 23.7ÂÂ ° whereas ÃŽÂ ² chitin , has two broad crystalline reflections at 9.1 and 20.3ÂÂ ° within the 2ÃŽÂ ¸ range of 5-35ÂÂ °. These results also support that the crystallinity of ÃŽÂ ² chitin is less than that of ÃŽÂ ± chitin because of the parallel structure. ÃŽÂ ± chitin has a more rigid crystalline structure because of its intersheets and intrasheets, and its structure exists as a stable structure with neither a crystalline phase transition nor thermal decomposition ( Jang et al., 2004). 2.6.2. FTIR Spectrophotometer Measurements Different methods have been used for the purpose of measuring the degree of deacetylation of chitin for eg. the linear potentiometric titration, ninhydrin test, hydrogen bromide titrimetry, near-infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and first derivative UV-spectrophotometry. Among all the tests stated above FTIR is one of the potential methods to determine the degree of deacetylation of the sample. It is far easier yet highly sensitive compared to the other processes. The process of removal of acetyl groups from the molecular chain of chitin is called deacetylation, it leaves behind a high degree chemical reactive amino group (-NH2). Thus the physicochemical properties of chitin highly depend on the degree of deacetylation (DD) hence it determines its appropriate applications. (Khan et al., 2002) Degree of deeacetylation also affects the biodegradability and immunological activity (Tolaimate et al., 2003). The degree of deacetylation c an also be used to differentiate between chitin and chitosan because it helps to know the amount of free amino groups in the polysaccharides. A degree of deacetylation of 75% or above in Chitin is generally known as chitosan (Knaul et al., 1999). 2.6.3. TGA The thermal degradation of chitin or chitosan with a broad range of DD has received little attention (GuinesiCavalheiro, 2006; Kittur, Prashanth, Sankar, Tharanathan, 2002). There are fewer reports on the thermal degradation process of chitin/chitosan and its derivatives than on chemical and enzymatic degradation (De Britto Campana-Filho, 2004; Holme, Foros, Pettersen, Dornish, Smidsrod, 2001; Hong et al., 2007; Neto et al., 2005; Qu, Wirsen, Albertsson, 2000; Wanjin, Cunxin, Donghua,2005). Thus to examine the thermal degradation of chitin with a broad range of DD, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a highly useful technique. It has also been reported that with an increase in the rate of deacetylation the temperature of degradation decreases (Young et al., 2009). 2.7. Application of Chitin Chitin and chitosan has several distinctive biological properties, including biocompatibility and biodegradability, cellularbinding capability, acceleration of wound healing, hemostatic properties, and anti-bacterial properties (Cho, Cho, Chung, Yoo, Ko, 1999; Muzzarelli, 1993; Tomihata Ikada, 1997).Some of the important industrial applications of chitin have been listed below in Table 1. Different industrial applications of chitin Waste Water Treatment Removal of metal ions, flocculant/coagulant, protein, dye Food Industry Thickener and gelling agent, animal feed additive. Medical Wound and bone healing, blood cholesterol control, skin burn Agriculture Seed Coat, Fertiliser, Controlled agrochemical release. Cosmetics Moisturizer, face, hand, and body creams, bath lotion, etc Biotechnology Enzyme immobilization, protein separation, cell recovery.

Measure for Measure Essay: Angelo -- Measure for Measure

Angelo in Measure for Measure   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Within Measure for Measure, the character of Angelo can be seen as a case study of will over moral nature. Angelo, a deputy, is given the Dukes authority to act in his behalf while the Duke is away. The story unfolds as Angelo uses the agency he's been given in ways that many men in authoritative positions have done. It is interesting to follow his line of thought and to realize that this is a man who is not unlike many others. The main conflict between Isabella and Angelo is a contemporary problem. Measure for Measure is a unique opportunity to investigate the personality types of the characters involved in the conflict, and the study of these complex characters can give meaningful insights into the nature of human emotion and action. Angelo's job is to take over in government while the Duke investigates his own character and those of others disguised as a friar. Whilst Angelo is in power, his will, ironically is in direct conflict with the law he is trying to uphold. He propositions chaste Isabella to engage in sexual activity in exchange for the life of her brother who is to be executed because of his sexual indiscretions. It can be perhaps seen that Angelo is not an inherently evil character, that he feel from ... ...with temptation." These are lessons that can apply to everyone.    Works Cited and Consulted: Black, James. "The Unfolding of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 26 (1973): 119-28. Leech, Clifford. "The 'Meaning' of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 3 (1950): 69-71. Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1995. Thomas, Vivian.   Understandning Angelo in Measure for Measure.   London: Croom Helm, 1987. Wilders, John.   "The Problem Comedies."   In Wells, Stanley, ed.   Shakespeare: Select Bibliographical Guides.   London: Oxford UP, 1973.